PARAGRAPH WRITING
1]-A good paragraph has unity.
2]-Better paragraph starts with topic sentence.
3]-A paragraph deals with a single controlling idea.
4]-An effective paragraph ensures proper length ,unity, coherence, cohesion ,and logical development of ideas.
A]-Unity[Cohesive]—One paragraph should have one idea and every sentence in the paragraph should be used to support and expand that idea.
B]-Coherence—It shows the development of the paragraph in a logical way. A coherent paragraph develops the topic in a logical way .Thus the reader can make sense of the content because one idea leads to another.
5]-Use transitions to link ideas .Transitions tell whether the next sentence continues the previous thought or starts a new idea These are the words/phrases that help to move smoothly fromone sentence to the next.
6]-Sentence linkers—It connects two sentences in a paragraph .It may consist of a word or a phras
7]-What should you look for when you revise paragraphs? –Check the topic sentence and the transition
TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES. [SENTENCE LINKERS] .
A]-To show addition or continuation of the same idea --- and, also, first ,second ,third ,in addition, like wise, similarly, etc.
B]-To introduce the last or most important item ---finally, furthermore, moreover, etc
C]-To give an example ---e.g, for example ,for instance, indeed, to illustrate, namely, specifically, etc
D]-To contrast ---or, on the other hand, in contrast, etc
E]-To show that the contrast is more important than the previous one---but, however, on the contrary, never the less, etc
F]-To show cause and effect---as a result, because, for this reason, consequently, therefore
G]-To show time---after, as, before, in the future, next, then, until, when, while ,etc
H]-To summarize or end---in conclusion, finally, in the end ,etc
TOPIC SENTENCE
1]-It is the sentence that presents the main idea or topic in the most effective way.
2]-The topic sentence can be placed any where in the paragraph.
3]-In the most effective paragraph, it is the first paragraph.
4]-A topics string is a series of sentences that develop the topic sentence.
5]-The topic sentence can be placed at the beginning [most effective], middle or end.
6]-If specific to general or inductive logical order is used, the topic sentence may be placed at the end.
7]-Sometime a topic sentence may not be included and the main idea is expressed through details only
BUSINESS PROPOSAL
1]- A proposal must answer the following question-
A]-what problem are you going to solve?
B]-How are you going to solve it?
C]-What exactly will you provide for us?
D]-Can you deliver what you promise?
E]- When will you complete the work ?
F]- How much will you charge ?
2]-Use the following pattern of organization for the cover letter of a sale proposal-
A]-Catch the reader’s attention and summarize up to three major benefits you offer.
B]- Discuss each of the major benefits in the order in which you mentioned them in the
first paragraph
C]- Deal with any objections or concerns the reader may have.
D]- Mention other benefits briefly.
E]- Ask the reader to approve your proposal and provide a reason for acting promptly.
3]-In a proposal for funding, stress the needs your project will meet. Show how your
Project helps fulfill the goals of the organization you are asking to fund it.
4]- The most important aspects of proposal writing are-
a—Establishing that a problem exists and that you are the best one to solve it.
b—Knowing who the key stakeholders are and what they are seeking.
c—Incorporating into your plan solutions tailored to your key stakeholders.
5]-Proposals can be classified as ---
A]-formal and non-formal .
B]-internal and external
C]-solicited and unsolicited
6]-CRITERIA TYPE DESCRIPTION
A]-Content and non-formal short proposals involving small
format projects
formal long proposals with elaborate descriptions
and discussions
B]-Nature of Internal addressed to readers within an organisation
Audience External Communicated to people outside an
Organization.
C]-Source of origin Solicited Written in response to a request for proposal
Unsolicited Written without any request for proposal.
7]-NON-FORMAL
A-It is brief and introductory in nature.
B-Written to initiate small projects that do not require elaborate descriptions
C-May involve the use of printed forms, letter formats or memo formats.
8]-FORMAL
A-Comparatively longer
B-Usually written to initiate big projects and require elaborate descriptions.
C-involves use of the manuscript format
D-It may consist of several sections and sub-sections.
8]-INTERNAL PROPOSAL-
A-It is addressed to readers within an organization.
B-It may offer to study a problem, situation, condition, or issue in the organization.
C-They are less formal and elaborate than external proposal.
9]-EXTERNAL PROPOSAL
A-They are communicated to people outside an organization.
B-It may offer a plan to solve a problem or situation of that organization and give appropriate suggestions and recommendations.
C-They are more formal, detailed and elaborate than internal proposals
10-SOLICITED PROPOSAL
A-It is written in response to a specific request from a client
B-Many companies and institutions solicit proposal for their projects.
C-They specify their requirements and mention their conditions.
11-UNSOLICITED PROPOSAL
A- Written without any request for proposal
B-That intend to propose solutions or recommendations
C-They are based on an objective assessment of a situation or condition by an individual
or a firm.[example-a person noticing a problem in his organization and wanting to offer his ideas on how to handle It may submit an unsolicited proposal.]
D-Self initiated research and business projects usually involve unsolicited proposals.
PARTS OF A FORMAL PROPOSAL
I-Title page
2-Table of contents
3-List of figures
4-Abstract or summary
5-Methodology
6-Introduction
7-Statement of problem
8-Proposed plan and schedule
9-Advantages and disadvantages
10-Recommendations.
1-THE TITLE PAGE contains –
a-the title of the proposal
b-the name of the person or organization to whom the proposal is submitted.
c-the name of the proposal writer
d-the date.
STRUCTURE OF TITLE PAGE
A proposal on
. --------------------------------------------
Submitted to
---------------------------------------------
Submitted by
--------------------------------------------
Date
-----------------------------------
2-TABLE OF CONTENTS provides the reader an overall view of the proposal by listing the main headings and the sub-headings in the proposal, with their page numbers.
STRUCTURE OF TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract 1
1-Background 2
2-Introduction 2
3-Statement of problem 3
4-Proposed plan and schedule 5
5-Recommendations 7
6-Conclusion 8
Appendices 10
3-LIST OF FIGURES This section includes a list of tables, graphs, figures, and charts used in the proposal ,with their page number.
STRUCTURE OF LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-----------------------------------1
Figure 2-----------------------------------3
Figure 3-----------------------------------4
Figure 4-----------------------------------6
4-ABSTRACT OR SUMMARY is a condensed version of the proposal as it summarises and highlights its major points.
METHODOLOGY summarises the proposed methods of data collection and the procedure for investigating the situation/problem.
5-INTRODUCTION. This section introduces readers to the proposal .It gives the background, states the purpose and discusses the scope.
By highlighting the major advantages , it tries to persuade the reader.
6-STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM contains an objective description of the problem that the proposal intends to address.
7-PROPOSED PLAN AND SCHEDULE presets a schedule of activities highlighting the main course of action.
8-ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES . This section reinforces that the proposal has more advantages than dis-advantages by making realistic comparision. It links benefits to the needs of the situation.
9-RECOMMENDATIONS is the main section of a proposal as it discusses the plan to solve the problem .It is the most persuasive section of a proposal.
10-CONCLUTION presents the final summary of the proposal and focuses on main points and the key benefits and advantages. It influences readers with a final appeal.
11-APPENDICES-Secondary materials are put as appendices in a proposal.
BUSINESS REPORT
1-A report is a factual and systematic account of a specific business or professional activity.
2 Reports help in the analysis of a condition, situation or a problem for an effective solution.
3- It is a formal document written for a specific audience to meet a specific need.
Ø Reports serve several purposes---
Ø A-presenting data
Ø B-describing problems and suggesting solutions
Ø C-discussing and analyzing data
Ø D-recording events and happenings-
Ø E-analyzing a situation or a condition.
Ø D-giving feedback, suggestion or recommendations.
4-TYPES OF REPORTS
1-INFORMATIONAL REPORT-
A-It presents facts of a case, problem, condition or situation without any analysis, interpretations or recommendations.
B-Its function is to collect, compile and organize facts for the reader.
C-Examples of informational reports include seminar reports, trip reports, conference reports etc.
2-ANALYTICAL REPORT
A-It presents data with interpretations and analysis.
B-The report writer analyses the facts of a case and puts forward his/her inference and recommendations.
C-To write an analytical report, the writer should be able to evaluate information and make appropriate inferences.
D-Example of analytical report include project reports, feasibility reports, market research reports and so on.
3-ROUTINE REPORTS [OR PERIODIC REPORTS]
A-Routine reports are prepared on a periodic basis i.e daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly,
quarterly or annually.
B-The routine reports may be informational or analytical.
C-Examples of this report include daily production reports, monthly sales report, annul
report etc.
4-SPECIAL REPORTS
A-This is prepared and presented to convey special information related to a single
condition , problem or occasion.
B-They do not contain routine or repetitive information.
C-They are the result of specific circumstances.
D-Special report could be either informational or analytical .
E-Examples of this report are inquiry report, research reports, thesis etc.
5-ORAL REPORTS
A-It is informal and face to face presentation of information.
B-Examples are oral reporting of sales, production, joining etc.
C-They present information related to routine activities, projects and development.
6-WRITTEN REPORTS
A-They help in maintaining proper record for future reference.
B-Most reports have a permanent value. So written reports are conventional.
7-FORMAL REPORTS
A-This is the result of a through investigation of a condition or situation.
B-They are comparatively longer and need elaborate description and discussion.
C-They follow a fixed format.
D-They could be informational, analytical,
E-Examples of formal reports are annual reports of companies, technical reports, project
reports, thesis etc
8-NON-FORMAL REPORTS
A-It is a brief account of a specific business.
B-It is usually short and do not need elaborate description.
C-An informal report may use printed forms, letters formats or memo formats.
D-They are routine reports .
E-They may be either informational, analytical, oral or written.
5- FORMAT OF REPORTS
FORMAT DESCRIPTION
1-Printed forms-------------------Forms prepared to record repetitive and routine data.
2-Letter format--------------------Short informal reports to be communicated to some one
outside an organization.
3-Memo format-------------------Short informal reports to be communicated to someone
within an organization
4-Manuscript format---------------Formal reports printed on plain paper.
1-PRINTED FORMS
A-The advantages are –a] systematic and make for easy reading.
b-the readers can easily locate and identify important
information.
c-they are more objective and factual with little scope for the
writer to be subjective about the content.
. d-they save time.
2-LETTER FORMAT
A-Contains all the elements of a letter along with some additional sections such as
illustrations references etc.
B-Headings may be used in a letter format.
3- MEMO FORMAT
A-A memo report should contain heading for easy reading and reference.
HEADING
DATE: February 3 , 2008
TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
REPORT
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Recommendation
>
>
>
4-MANUSCRIPT FORMAT
A-It is divided into sections and sub-sections
B-The writer has to be careful about its structure and elements.
STRUCTURE OF FORMAL REPORTS
A-PARTS OF A REPORT
1-Title page
2-Letter of transmittal
3-Acknowledgements
4-Table of contents
5-List of illustration
6-Executive summary/abstract
7-Introduction
8-Methodology
9-Findings/analysis
10-Conclusion
11Recomendation
12-Appendices
13-References and bibliography
1] SAMPLE TITLE PAGE
A REPORT ON
Improving Blast Efficiency through
Performance Analysis
SUBMITTED TO
Department of Science and Technology
Government of India
SUBMITTED BY
Ramesh Mohanty
Research scholar,IIT,Kanpur
DATE
January 20, 2008
2]-LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL - a- It is a brief covering letter from the report writer explaining the causes for
writing the report.
. b- It may contain the objectives, scope and other highlights of the report.
It may also contain acknowledgement, if the report does not include an
c- acknowledgement.
3]-ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A-This section contains the names of persons who contributed to the
Production of the report.
4]-TABLE OF CONTENTS
A-T hey provide the reader an overall view of the report and shows its
organization.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface--------------------------------------1
Acknowledgement-------------------------2
List of illustrations------------------------3
Executive summary-----------------------4
1-Introduction ---------------------6
2-Methodology--------------------9
3-Discussion----------------------10
4-Conclusion----------------------15
5-Recommendations-------------19
Appendices----------------------------------20
References-----------------------------------25
5]-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A-It gives systematic information about tables, charts, figures and graphs.
6]-ABSTRACT OR EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A-It summarises the essential information in the report, focusing on key facts, findings, observations, results, conclusion and recommendations.
7]-INTRODUCTION
-This section introduces the reader to the report. It helps the readers in understanding and analyzing report as it include facts that the reader must know in order to understand the discussion.
A-ANALYSE THE PROBLEM AND PURPOSE
Ask the following questions before beginning to write a report.
a-What do you want to present or discuss in the report?
b-Why do you want to present it?
1-Answer to these questions will help in identifying the problem.
2-The problem may be written down in the form of a statement.
B-Determine the scope of the Report
.
8]-METHODOLOGY
A-While writing a report one has to gather information from library, internet,
interviews, surveys and formal/informal discussions .This section
summarises the methods of data collection, the procedure for investigating
and the criteria of survey.
9]-
APA Citation StylePublication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition
Follow these color codes:
Author(s)
Date
Title of Book
Title of Article
Title of Periodical
Volume
Pages
Place of Publication
Publisher
Other Information
Journal Article: where the page numbering continues from issue to issue
Dubeck, L. (1990). Science fiction aids science teaching. Physics Teacher, 28, 316-318.
Journal or Magazine Article: that start each issue with page one(for magazine articles, include the month and day - see below)
Wilcox, R. V. (1991). Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture, 13(2), 53-65.
Magazine or Journal Article from a Database(for journal articles, do not include the month - see above)
Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585. Retrieved July 29, 1999, from Expanded Academic ASAP database.
Newspaper Article
Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, p. A3.
Book
Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books.
Book Article or Chapter
James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Encyclopedia Article
Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier.
ERIC Document
Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Miami, FL: Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 364932)
Website
Lynch, T. (1996). DS9 trials and tribble-ations review. Retrieved October 8, 1997, from Psi Phi: Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site: http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/ 503r.html
Notes
If you are using the style for Copy Manuscripts, doublespace all lines. If you are using the style for Final Manuscripts, singlespace all lines and skip a line in between each reference. Ask your professor which style to follow.
Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc.
Indent the second and following lines 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch.
Use only the initials of the authors' first (and middle) names.
If no author is given, start with the title and then the date.
Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle. (Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.)
If you are using a typewriter that cannot produce italics, then use underlining instead.
Magazine articles: include the month (and day) as shown under "Magazine Article from a Database" and "Newspapers".
Websites: if the date the page was created is not given, use (n.d.).
The rules concerning a title within a title are not displayed here for purposes of clarity. See the printed version of the manual for details.
Our website also has guide to APA citation style that's tailored for business sources.
A little bit of additional information is available on the official website, APA Style.org.
For documents and situations not listed here, see the printed version of the manual.
Other Styles
MLA Citation StyleMLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 6th edition
Follow these color codes:
Author(s)
Title of Book
Title of Article
Title of Periodical
Volume
Place of Publication
Publisher
Date
Other Information
Pages
Book
Okuda, Michael, and Denise Okuda. Star Trek Chronology: The History
of the Future. New York: Pocket, 1993.
Journal Article
Wilcox, Rhonda V. "Shifting Roles and Synthetic Women in Star
Trek: The Next Generation." Studies in Popular Culture 13.2 (1991):
53-65.
Newspaper or Magazine Article
Di Rado, Alicia. "Trekking through College: Classes Explore Modern
Society Using the World of Star Trek." Los Angeles Times 15 Mar.
1995: A3.
Book Article or Chapter
James, Nancy E. "Two Sides of Paradise: The Eden Myth According to
Kirk and Spock." Spectrum of the Fantastic. Ed. Donald Palumbo.
Westport: Greenwood, 1988. 219-223.
Encyclopedia Article (well known reference books)
Sturgeon, Theodore. "Science Fiction." The Encyclopedia Americana.
International ed. 1995.
Encyclopedia Article (less familiar reference books)
Horn, Maurice. "Flash Gordon." The World Encyclopedia of Comics.
Ed. Maurice Horn. 2 vols. New York: Chelsea, 1976.
Gale Reference Book (and other books featuring reprinted articles)
Shayon, Robert Lewis. "The Interplanetary Spock." Saturday Review
17 June 1967: 46. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed.
Sharon R. Gunton. Vol. 17. Detroit: Gale Research, 1981. 403.
ERIC Document
Fuss-Reineck, Marilyn. Sibling Communication in Star Trek: The Next
Generation: Conflicts between Brothers. Miami: Speech
Communication Assn., 1993. ERIC Document Reproduction Service
ED364932.
Website
Lynch, Tim. "DSN Trials and Tribble-ations Review." Psi Phi: Bradley's
Science Fiction Club. 1996. Bradley University. 8 Oct. 1997
Newspaper or Magazine Article on the Internet
Andreadis, Athena. "The Enterprise Finds Twin Earths Everywhere It
Goes, But Future Colonizers of Distant Planets Won't Be So Lucky."
Astronomy Jan. 1999: 64- . Academic Universe. Lexis-Nexis. B.
Davis Schwartz Memorial Lib., Brookville, NY. 7 Feb. 1999
Gale Literature Criticism Online
Shayon, Robert Lewis. "The Interplanetary Spock." Saturday Review
17 June 1967: 46. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed.
Sharon R. Gunton and Gerald J. Senick. Vol. 17. Detroit: Gale
Research, 1981. 403. Literature Criticism Online. Thomson Gale.
B. Davis Schwartz Memorial Lib., Brookville, NY. 15 Nov. 2007
Notes
Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books, articles, etc.
Doublespace all lines.
Indent the second and following lines 5 spaces (or one half inch).
If no author is given, start with the title.
Abbreviate the names of all months except May, June, and July.
If the paging of a magazine or newspaper article is continued elswhere in the issue, include only the first page followed by a plus sign (ex. 25+.).
If the encyclopedia does not arrange its articles alphabetically, treat the encyclopedia article as if it were a book article. Specific volume and page numbers are cited in the text, not in the list of references.
Gale Reference Book: cite the original source being reprinted as shown under Book, Journal Article, Newspaper or Magazine Article, etc. The example shows a Magazine Article. Then include the citation information for the reference book.
Websites: include the title of the web page, the name of the entire web site, the organization that posted it (this may be the same as the name of the website). Also include the full date the page was created or last updated (day, month, year if available) and the date you looked at it.
Internet Magazine Articles: Include:
The full date of the article (day, month, year if available) and the date you looked at it;
If you are citing a journal instead of a magazine, include the volume (and issue number) and date as shown under the Journal Style above.
As for page numbers, different databases will provide different information. Include the range of pages (ex. 25-28.); or the starting page followed by a hyphen, a blank space, and a period (ex. 64- .); or the total number of pages or paragraphs (ex. 12 pp. or 33 pars.). If no page information is given, then leave it out.
The name of the database (underlined) and the company that created it.
The library or other organization (and its location) that provided you with access to the database.
If the web address (URL) of the article is very long, you only need to include the URL of the database's home page.
The rules concerning a title within a title are not displayed here for purposes of clarity. See the printed version of the manual for details.
For documents and situations not listed here, see the printed version of the manual.
Other Styles
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